The European State System and Balance of Power

Topics Covered: Absolutism, Enlightened Despots, Balance of Power, Peter the Great, The Great Northern War

Absolutism in France

Absolutism is a form of monarchy in which the ruler’s authority is not limited by laws or a constitution. It was often justified by the doctrine of divine right, meaning kings ruled as God’s representatives.

Henry IV

• A politique who issued the Edict of Nantes

• Strengthened the monarchy, reduced debt, and weakened nobles (robe nobles)

Louis XIV (1643–1715)
Often considered the perfect example of absolutism. His reign is famous for:

1. The Fronde

2. Versailles

3. Wartime Policies

Bishop Bossuet, working under Louis, became the leading defender of divine right monarchy.

I. The Fronde (1643–1653)
After Louis XIII’s death, Cardinal Mazarin ruled as regent. Nobles tried to seize power during the Fronde rebellion. The experience traumatized young Louis XIV, motivating him to weaken the nobility and centralize authority.

II. Versailles (1661–1682)

• Louis built Versailles to escape Paris and control nobles

• It became a political trap — nobles lived under his watch

• Symbolized order, power, and grandeur (Louis called himself the “Sun King”)

• Supported by cultural figures like Racine, Molière, and Lully

Colbert (Finance Minister)

• Mercantilism advocate

• Wanted national wealth in gold/silver

• Expanded manufacturing and shipping

• Eliminated internal tariffs

• Increased state revenue dramatically

Louvois (War Minister)

• Grew the army to 400,000 men

• Improved weapons, uniforms, fortifications

Louis used rivalry between ministers to strengthen his power.

Domestic Policies

• Revoked Edict of Nantes (1685) — one million Huguenots fled or converted

• Suppressed Jansenists

• Fiscal mismanagement led to credit bubbles and debt crises

Cultural and Social Effects

• Versailles reduced women’s political influence compared to Parisian salons

• Centralization helped cause tension leading to the French Revolution

III. Wartime (1682–1715)

Louis XIV threatened the European balance of power. His expansionism alarmed England, the Dutch, and the Habsburgs.

War of the Spanish Succession (1700–1713)
When the sickly Charles II of Spain died without heirs, Louis and the Habsburgs fought over succession.

Treaty of Utrecht (1713–1714):

• France: Kept Alsace; Louis’s grandson became king of Spain (but thrones cannot unite)

• England: Gained Gibraltar, Balearics, and the profitable asiento (slave trade)

• Austria: Gained Spanish Netherlands, Milan, Naples, Sardinia

• Prussia: Brandenburg elector recognized as “King in Prussia”

• Savoy: Gained Sicily (later swapped for Sardinia)

Was Louis XIV a success or failure?

Success

• Strong leadership

• Centralized rule

• Cultural brilliance

• Massive army

• Administrative reforms

• Versailles prestige

• Increased revenue

Failure

• Crushed peasants

• Endless wars → debt

• Failed military goals

• Revoked Edict of Nantes

• Poor economic decisions

• Tax exemption for nobles

• Weak heir

Louis XV

• Regency under Duke of Orléans

• John Law attempted economic reforms → Mississippi Bubble crash

• Cardinal Fleury restored stability

Absolutism Elsewhere in Europe

Habsburgs – Vienna

Leopold I (1658–1705)

• Tried to imitate Versailles

• Relied heavily on aristocratic Privy Council

• Multinational empire: Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, Netherlands, Lombardy, Tuscany

• Struggled to unify the empire

Charles VI (1711–1740)

• Issued Pragmatic Sanction to secure his daughter Maria Theresa’s succession

• Left an empty treasury and weak army

Maria Theresa

• Deeply religious, effective administrator

• Tax reforms, centralized bureaucracy

• Reorganized army

• Faced wars over Silesia and rebellious nobles

Hohenzollerns – Berlin

Frederick William (The Great Elector, 1640–1688)

• Built a powerful army (8,000 → 22,000)

• Ended Diet influence; gained taxation rights

• Alliance with Junkers strengthened noble control in return for loyalty

Frederick I (1701)

• Gained title “King in Prussia”

• Beautified Berlin, promoted arts and sciences

Frederick William I (1713–1740)

• Militaristic, frugal

• Increased army to 83,000 men

• Established General Directory to manage state

Frederick II (Frederick the Great, 1740–1786)

• Enlightened absolutist

• Loved French culture, music, philosophy

• Reformed legal and social systems

• Aggressive foreign policy — seized Silesia

Bourbons – Madrid

Spain declined after Philip II due to religious expulsions and weak monarchs.

Charles II (1665–1700)

• Sickly → succession crisis → War of Spanish Succession

Under the Bourbons:

• Centralized rule

• Ended independence of regional states

• Reforms by Count Campomanes

• Jesuits expelled in 1767

Romanovs – St. Petersburg

Peter the Great (1682–1725)
A brilliant yet brutal ruler who modernized Russia through westernization.

Early Struggles

• Witnessed Streltsy revolt → determined to crush noble resistance

• Overthrew his half-sister Sophia

Western Reforms

• Built navy, imported Dutch shipbuilders

• Created factories, academies, and Russia’s first newspaper

• Introduced beard tax, western dress code

• Promoted French language at court

• Forced nobles into bureaucratic and military service

Government Reforms

• Ignored the Duma

• Centralized bureaucracy patterned after Prussia and Sweden

• Created a single hierarchy of service nobility

• Increased taxes, forced labor, military conscription

Church Reforms

• Abolished Patriarchate

• Created Synod under state control

Social Policies

• Forced nobles to move to St. Petersburg

• Oppressed serfs and peasants

• Built a large standing army (300,000+)

The Great Northern War & Peter’s Foreign Policy

Peter allied with Augustus II of Poland against Sweden, led by the teenage genius Charles XII.

Charles XII

• Brilliant commander

• Defeated Russia at Narva (1700) despite being outnumbered

• Beat Poland, drove Augustus into exile

Charles eventually invaded Russia (1708), but Peter used:

• Scorched Earth tactics

• Harsh winter

• Deliberate retreat strategy

This led to Charles’s defeat in 1709 at Poltava — a major turning point that gave Russia dominance in the Baltic.